Ark of the Covenant

The Ark of the Covenant (ארון הברית in Hebrew: aron habrit) is described in the Hebrew Bible as a sacred container, wherein rested the stone tablets containing the Ten Commandments as well as other sacred Israelite objects. According to the Biblical account, the Ark was built at the command of God, in accord with Moses' prophetic vision on Mount Sinai (Exodus 25:9-10). God communicated with Moses "from between the two cherubim" on the Ark's cover (Ex. 25:22). The Ark and its sanctuary were "the beauty of Israel" (Lamentations 2:1). Rashi and some Midrashim suggest that there were two arks - a temporary one made by Moses, and a later one made by Bezalel (Hertz 1936)

The Biblical account relates that during the trip of the Israelites, the Ark was carried by the priests ~2,000 cubits (Numbers 35:5; Joshua 4:5) in advance of the people and their army or host (Num. 4:5-6; 10:33-36; Psalms 68:1; 132:8). When the Ark was borne by priests into the bed of the Jordan, the river was separated, opening a pathway for the whole of the host to pass over (Josh. 3:15-16; 4:7-18). The Ark was born in a seven day procession around the wall of Jericho by three priests sounding seven trumpets of rams' horns, the city taken with a shout (Josh. 6:4-20). When carried, the Ark was always wrapped in a veil, in tachash skins (the identity of this animal is uncertain), and a blue cloth, and was carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the Levites who carried it.

Terminology

The Hebrew word aron is used in the Bible to designate any type of ark, chest or coffer, for any purpose (Genesis 50:26; 2 Kings 12:9, 10). The Ark of the Covenant is distinguished from all others by such titles as "Ark of God" (1 Samuel 3:3), "Ark of the Covenant" (Josh. 3:6; Hebrews 9:4), "Ark of the Testimony" (Ex. 25:22).

The Ark is referred to by several names in the Bible, among them the Ark of the Testimony, the Ark of the Covenant, the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord of all the Earth, the Holy Ark and the Ark of thy God's strength

Description

The Bible describes the Ark as made of acacia or shittah-tree wood. It was a cubit and a half broad and high, and two and a half cubits long (about 130 cm x 78 cm x 78 cm or 4.29 x 2.57 x 2.57 feet, for Egyptian royal cubit was most likely used). The Ark was covered all over with the purest gold. Its upper surface or lid, the mercy seat (Hebrew: כפורת, Kaporet), was surrounded with a rim of gold.

On each of the two sides were two gold rings, wherein were placed two wooden poles (with a decorative sheathing of gold), to allow the Ark to be carried (Num. 7:9; 10:21; 4:5,19, 20; 1 Kings 8:3, 6). Over the Ark, at the two extremities, were two cherubim, with their faces turned toward one another (Leviticus16:2; Num. 7:89). Their outspread wings over the top of the Ark formed the throne of God, while the Ark itself was his footstool (Ex. 25:10-22; 37:1-9). The Ark was placed in the "Holy of Holies," so that one end of the carrying poles touched the veil separating the two compartments of the tabernacle (1 Kings 8:8).

Contents

According to the Bible, the two tablets of stone constituting the "testimony" or evidence of God'scovenant with the people (Deuteronomy 31:26) (i.e. The Ten Commandments) were kept within the Ark itself. A golden jar containing some of the manna from the Israelites' trek in the wilderness, and the rod of Aaron that budded, were added to the contents of the Ark (Ex. 16:32-34; Heb. 9:4), but apparently were later removed at some point prior to the building of Solomon's temple, as the Tanakh states in I Kings 8:9 that there "was nothing in the Ark save the two tables of stone." While Heb. 9:4 states these items were placed "inside" the Ark, Ex. 16:33-34 and Num. 17:10 use the expression "before" the Ark; some see a contradiction here, as the correct meaning of these phrases is open to interpretation. A Rabbinic tradition states that Moses also put the broken fragments of the first tablets of the Law into the Ark (Hertz 1936).

Sanctity and consecration

Even Aaron, brother of Moses and the High Priest, was forbidden to enter the place of the Ark, except once per year on a designated day, when he was to perform certain ceremonies there (Lev. 16). Moses was directed to consecrate the Ark, when completed, with the oil of holy ointment (Ex. 30:23-26); he was also directed to have the Ark made by Bezalel, son of Uri of the tribe of Judah, and by Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach of the tribe of Dan (Ex. 31:2-7). These instructions Moses carried out, calling upon every "wisehearted" one among the people to assist in the work (Ex. 35:10-12). Bezaleel the artist made the Ark (Ex. 37:1); and Moses approved the work, put the testimony in the Ark, and installed it.

According to the Haggadah written in the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods (circa 200-500 AD), after installment in the second Temple, the Ark and the operation of the Temple was supervised by the angelMetatron. There are numerous possible etymologies for the name Metatron, one being from two Greek words μετὰ θρóνος after and throne. There are no references to Metatron in the Jewish Tanakh (Old Testament), the Christian Scriptures (New Testament) or any Islamic source.

In Deut. 10:1-5, a different account of the making of the Ark is given. Moses is made to say that he constructed the Ark before going upon Mount Sinai to receive the second set of tablets. The charge of carrying the Ark and the rest of the holy implements was given to the family of Kohath (of the tribe of Levi). They, though, were not to touch any of the holy things that were still uncovered by Aaron (Num. 4:2-15).

Other references to the Ark in Scripture

The Ark of the Covenant is mentioned in both the Bible and the Qur'an.

In the Bible

The Ark carried into the Temple

The only mention of the Ark in the books of the prophets is the reference to it by Jeremiah, who, speaking in the days of Josiah(Jer. 3:16), prophesies a future time when the Ark will no longer be used. In the Psalms, the Ark is twice referred to. In Ps. 78:61 its capture by the Philistines is spoken of, and the Ark is called "the strength and glory of God"; and in Ps. 132:8, it is spoken of as "You and the ark of Your strength." The Ark is also mentioned in several passages in Exodus and 1 Samuel, including Exodus 25:10-22 and 1 Samuel 4:3-22 and 5:7-8.

The Ark is mentioned in one passage in the deuterocanonical 2 Maccabees 2:4-10, which contains a reference to a document saying that the prophet Jeremiah, "being warned of God," took the Ark, and the tabernacle, and the altar of incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Nebo (Deut. 34:1), informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy." Hebrews 9:4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron's rod that budded, and the tables of the covenant." Finally, in the Book of Revelation the Ark is described as being in the 'temple' of God in heaven (Rev. 11:19). The Ark is last seen in God's 'temple' just before a woman gives birth to the man child (Rev. 12:1-2), both stalked by a dragon and his angels cast to earth (Rev. 12:3-17).

In the Qur'an

There is a brief mention of the Ark of the Covenant in Islamic literature. This mention is in the middle of the narrative of the choice of Saul to be king. The Qur'an states:

And (further) their Prophet said to them: "A Sign of his authority is that there shall come to you the Ark of the Covenant, with (an assurance) therein of security from your Lord, and the relics left by the family of Moses and the family of Aaron, carried by angels. In this is a Symbol for you if ye indeed have faith."

Various historical Islamic scholars have stated that the Ark may have held a chrysolite or ruby figure, with the head and tail of a she-cat and with two wings. Al-Tha'alibi, in "Qisas al-Anbiya" (The Stories of the Prophets), give an earlier and later history of the Ark.

According to most Muslim scholars, the Ark of the Covenant has a religious basis in Islam, and Islam gives it special significance. Muslims believe that it will be found by Mahdi near the end of times in the city of Antakya. These Islamic scholars believe inside there will be relics left by the people of Moses and the people of Aaron. There might be the sceptres of Moses, Aaron's rod, Plates of the Torah, and Aaron's turban.

History

Mobile vanguard

In the march from Sinai, and at the crossing of the Jordan river, the Ark preceded the people, and was the signal for their advance (Num. 10:33; Josh. 3:3, 6). The Ark of the Covenant burned the thorns and other obstructions in the wilderness roads. According to tradition, sparks from between the two cherubim killed serpents and scorpions. (I and II Chronicles)^[1] During the crossing of the Jordan, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters; and remained so until the priests -- with the Ark -- left the river, after the people had passed over (Josh. 3:15-17; 4:10, 11, 18). As memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood (Josh. 4:1-9).

The Ark was carried into battle, such as in the Midian war (Num. 31). In the capture of Jericho the Ark was carried round the city once a day for six days, preceded by the armed men and seven priests sounding seven trumpets of rams' horns (Josh. 6:4-15). On the seventh day the seven priests sounding the seven trumpets of rams' horns before the Ark compassed the city seven times and with a great shout, Jericho's wall fell down flat and the people took the city (Josh. 6:16-20). After the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark (Josh. 7:6-9). When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark. The Ark was again set up by Joshua atShiloh; but when the Israelites fought against Benjamin at Gibeah, they had the Ark with them, and consulted it after their defeat.

Captured by the Philistines

The Ark is next spoken of as being in the tabernacle at Shiloh during Samuel's apprenticeship (1 Sam. 3:3). After the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan, the Ark remained in the tabernacle at Gilgal for a season, then was removed to Shiloh until the time of Eli, between 300 and 400 years (Jeremiah 7:12), when it was carried into the field of battle, so as to secure, as they supposed, victory to the Hebrews; and it was taken by the Philistines (1 Sam. 4:3-11), who sent it back after retaining it seven months (1 Sam. 5:7, 8) because of the events said to have transpired. After their first defeat at Eben-ezer, the Israelites had the Ark brought from Shiloh, and welcomed its coming with great rejoicing.

In the second battle, the Israelites were again defeated, and the Philistines captured the Ark (1 Sam. 4:3-5, 10, 11). The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head." The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it; and his daughter-in-law, bearing a son at the time the news of the capture of the Ark was received, named him Ichabod—explained as "Where is glory?" in reference to the loss of the Ark (1 Sam. 4:12-22).

The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune resulted to them (1 Sam. 5:1-6). At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils; a plague of mice was sent over the land (1 Sam. 6:5). The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people ofGath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed (1 Sam. 5:8-12).

After the Ark had been among them seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the boils and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set in the field of Joshua the Beth-shemite, and the Beth-shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings (1 Sam. 6:1-15). Out of curiosity the men of Beth-shemesh gazed at the Ark; and as a punishment, seventy of them (fifty thousand seventy in some ms.) were smitten by the Lord (1 Sam. 6:19). The Bethshemites sent to Kirjath-jearim, or Baal-Judah, to have the Ark removed (1 Sam. 6:21); and it was taken to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it. Kirjath-jearim was the abode of the Ark for twenty years. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In 1 Chronicles 13:3 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consult the Ark in the days of Saul.

In the days of King David

At the very beginning of his reign, David removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart whereon the Ark was carried, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was smitten by the Lord for touching it. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and here it stayed three months (2 Sam. 6:1-11; 1 Chron. 13:1-13).

On hearing that the Lord had blessed Obed-edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen ephod," "danced before the Lord with all his might" — a performance that caused him to be despised and scornfully rebuked by Saul's daughter Michal (2 Sam. 6:12-16, 20-22; 1 Chron. 15). This unjustified derision on her part resulted in the permanent loss of her fertility. In Zion, David put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household (2 Sam. 6:17-20; 1 Chron. 16:1-3; 2 Chron. 1:4).

Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark (1 Chron. 16:4). David's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 1 Chron. 17:1-15; 28:2, 3). The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah (2 Sam. 11:11); and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time ofAbsalom's conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24-29).

In Solomon's temple

When Abiathar was dismissed from the priesthood by Solomon for having taken part in Adonijah'sconspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark (1 Kings 2:26). It was afterwards placed by Solomon in the temple (1 Kings 8:6-9). Solomon worshiped before the Ark after his dream in which the Lord promised him wisdom (1 Kings 3:15). In Solomon's Temple, a Holy of Holies was prepared to receive the Ark (1 Kings 6:19); and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark -- containing nothing but the two Mosaic tables of stone -- was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord" (1 Kings 8:10-11; 2 Chron. 5:13, 14).

When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark (2 Chron. 8:11). King Josiah had the Ark put into the Temple (2 Chron. 35:3), whence it appears to have again been removed by one of his successors.

The Babylonians and afterwards

Believed to be the place where the Ark of the Covenant sat before King Solomon's Temple was destroyed. A dome was later built by the Arabs who now refer to it as the Dome of Spirits.

When the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the temple, the Ark entered the domain of legend. Many historians suppose that the ark was probably taken away byNebuchadnezzar and destroyed. The absence of the ark from the Second Temple was acknowledged. The Ark is finally re-established to the Temple in vision: "Then God's temple in heaven was opened, and within his temple was seen the Ark of his Covenant" (Rev. 11:19 NIV).

Fate of the Ark

In contrast to the view of many historians (who suppose that the Ark was taken away and destroyed), variant traditions about the ultimate fate of the Ark include the intentional concealing of the Ark under the Temple Mount; the removal of the Ark from Jerusalem in advance of the Babylonians (this variant usually ends up with the Ark inEthiopia); the removal of the Ark by the Ethiopian prince Menelik I (purported son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba); removal by Jewish priests during the reign of Manasseh of Judah, possibly taken to the Jewish Temple at Elephantine in Egypt; the miraculous removal of the Ark by divine intervention (Cf. 2 Chronicles); and even the destruction of the original ornate Ark under King Josiah's reforms (when it may have been seen as violating the commandment against graven images) and replacement with a simple wooden box, easily lost when the Temple fell.

Concealment

Some believe that the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle of the Lord was hidden. This is referenced by five separate sources (except from the previous mentioned in 2 Maccabees):

1. the Mishnayot of Rabbi Hertz
2. the Marble Tablets of Beirut
3. the Copper Scroll (though the Ark is not mentioned by name)
4. the ancient Ben Ezra Synagogue sacred texts
5. the deutero-canonical Book of 2 Esdras reports that the Prophet Jeremiah concealed the Ark on Mt. Nebo

Mishnayot

The Mishnayot introduction included ancient records that Rabbi Hertz called the "Mishnayot". Hertz used the term "Mishnayot", since the text of the Mishnayot is missing from the Mishnah (Mishna), which is the first section of the Talmud, a collection of ancient Rabbinic writings including also theGemara, "the summary", and containing the Jewish religious law.^[2]

The "missing" Mishnaic text in the Mishnayot is called the Massakhet Keilim, written in twelve chapters. Each chapter of the Mishnayot describes vessels which were hidden under the direction ofJeremiah the Prophet by five holy men (Shimor HaLevi, Chizkiah, Tzidkiyahu, Haggai the Prophet andZechariah the Prophet), seven years prior to the destruction of Solomon's First Temple, because the dangers of Babylonian conquest were imminent. The Mishnayot describing this hiding was then written in Babylon during the Babylonian Captivity.

The first chapter of the Mishnayot describes the vessels that were hidden - including the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle of the Lord, i.e. the Mishkan, the Tablets of Moses, the altar (with cherubim) for the daily and seasonal sacrifices (the ushebtis), the Menorah (candelabra), the Qalal(copper urn) containing the Ashes of the Red Heifer (ashes from a red cow sacrificed under Moses, necessary for ritual purification of the priests), and numerous vessels of the Kohanim (priests).

The second chapter of the Mishnayot states that a list of these treasures was inscribed upon a copper tablet. This is the Copper Scroll found at Qumran.

Marble tablets of Beirut

In 1952 two large marble tablets were found in the basement of a museum in Beirut, stating they were the words of Shimor HaLevi, the servant of HaShem, and the writing on the tablets is the entire missing text of "Massakhet Keilim" (Mishnayot) including reference to the Copper Scroll.

Copper scroll

The first of the Dead Sea Scrolls was discovered in 1947, and the famed Copper Scroll - made of 99% copper and 1% tin - was found at Qumran in 1952. The Copper Scroll is an inventory - written in Hebrew- of treasures, thought by some to be from Solomon's First Temple, hidden before the destruction of that temple by the Babylonians and treasures which have not been seen since.

The Copper Scroll states that a silver [or alabaster?] chest, the vestments of the Cohen Gadol (HebrewHigh Priest), gold and silver in great quantities, the Tabernacle of the Lord (perhaps the Mishkan) and many treasures were hidden in a desolate valley - under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep. The Mishkan was a "portable" Temple for the Ark of the Covenant. The writings in the Copper Scroll were confirmed 40 years later in the 1990s through an ancient text found in the introduction to Emeq HaMelekh ("Valley of the King(s)") -- a book published in 1648 in Amsterdam, Holland, by Rabbi Naftali Hertz Ben Ya’acov Elchanon (Rabbi Hertz).

Ben Ezra synagogue texts

Work in the 1990s showed that in 1896, almost one hundred years previous, Solomon Schechter atCambridge University in England had acquired 100,000 pages of ancient Hebrew texts from theGenizah (repository for aged sacred Jewish texts) of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Cairo, Egypt. A copy of the "Tosefta" (supplement to the Mishnah) was found in these texts, included among the text onKeilim (vessels). This "Tosefta" is the same text as cited by Rabbi Hertz as his source for the Mishnayot.

Rumoured present locations

Some have claimed to have discovered or have possession of the Ark.

Africa

Some sources suggest that during the reign of King Manasseh (2 Chron 33) the Ark was smuggled from the temple by way of the Well of Souls and taken to Egypt, eventually ending up in Ethiopia. There are some carvings on the Cathedral of Chartres that may refer to this. Another theory was dramatized by George Lucas, Philip Kaufman and Lawrence Kasdan in their story and screenplay for the movieRaiders of the Lost Ark, which was directed by Steven Spielberg. The movie theorized that the ark was taken when Pharaoh Sheshonk (biblical Shishak) warred with the Israelites and took the ark to the Egyptian City of Tanis.

Ethiopian Orthodox Church

The Chapel of the Tablet at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion allegedly houses the original Ark of the Covenant.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Axum, Ethiopia is the only one in the world which still claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant. According to the Kebra Nagast, afterMenelik I had come to Jerusalem to visit his father, King Solomon, his father had given him a copy of the Ark, and had commanded the first-born sons of the elders of his kingdom to travel back to Ethiopia to settle there. However, these Israelites did not want to live away from the presence of the Ark, so they switched the copy with the original and smuggled the Ark out of the country; Menelik only learned that the original was with his group during the journey home. Solomon lost not only the Ark to his son by theQueen of Sheba but the divine favor that went with it.^[3]

Although it was once paraded before the town once each year, the object is now kept under constant guard in a "treasury" near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, and only the head priest of the church is allowed to view it. Most Western historians are skeptical of this claim.

Valley of Kings

Andis Kaulins claims that the hiding place of the ark, said specifically by ancient sources (such as theMishnayot), to be

"a desolate valley under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep".

Today, it is believed by some that this refers to the Tomb of Tutankhamun (east side of the Valley of Kings, ca. forty stones deep). Some believe that what was found there are the described treasures, including the Mishkan and the Ark of the Covenant.^[4]

Middle East

In 1989, the late Ron Wyatt claimed to have broken into a chamber while digging underground beneath Mount Moriah, also known as The Temple Mount. He claimed to have seen the ark and taken photographs. All photos came out blurry (leading to skepticism of the claim). According to Wyatt the excavations were closed off (because of private property concerns) and, to the extent of knowledge, no one has seen the ark since. Ron Wyatt was widely seen in the Biblical archaeology community as an attention seeker, often announcing he had found Biblically important objects with little or no hard evidence to back up his claims.

Vendyl Jones claimed to have found the entrance to the chamber in the cave of the Column - Qumran. Here, he stated, is where the Ark was hidden prior to the destruction of the First Temple. Arutz Shevaquoted Jones stating he would reveal the ark on Tisha B'Av (August 14, 2005), the anniversary of the destruction of both the First and Second Temples.^[5] However, this did not occur. On Jones' website he states that he was misquoted and actually said it would be appropriate if he discovered the ark on Tisha B'Av. Jones is waiting for funding to explore the cave.

Modern excavations near the Temple Mount in Jerusalem have found tunnels, but digging beneath the Temple Mount is somewhat restricted. One of the most important Islamic shrines, the Dome of the Rock, sits in the location where the First Temple of Solomon once stood. Archeologist Michael Roodstates that King Solomon married into the Egyptian Royal Family so as to gain the Egyptians' famed knowledge of sand hydraulic technology. King Solomon reportedly, when building the temple, put the Ark of the Covenant on a platform which could be lowered down into a tunnel system if the Temple were ever overrun. in 586 B.C. King Nebuchadnezzar's troops destroyed the temple and carried off the temple treasures but did not find the Ark of the Covenant which had been lowered into the cave system below and secreted away by Levite priests.

England

In 2003, historical author Graham Phillips traced the route of the Ark through research using Biblical texts as being taken to Mount Sinai in the Valley of Edom by the Maccabees, along with other religious teasures. It remained here until the 1180's, when Ralph de Sudeley, the leader of the Templars who apparently found the Maccabean treasure at Jebel al-Madhbah, returned home to his estate at Herdewyke in the county of Warwickshire in central England, taking the treasure with him^[6].

Ireland

During the turn of the 20th century the Hill of Tara was excavated by British Israelites who thought that the Irish were part of the Lost Tribes of Israel and the hill somehow contained the Ark of the Covenant.Tara and the Ark of the Covenant: A Search for the Ark of the Covenant by British Israelites on the Hill of Tara, 1899-1902, by Mairead Carew (2004). This book describes the story of the British-Israelite excavations on Tara and places them in their archaeological, historical, cultural and political context.

Mary as Ark of the New Covenant

In Catholic and Orthodox theology, the Ark of the Covenant is seen as the Old Covenant type or foreshadowing of the place of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the New Covenant. Pope Pius XII explained the connection in his apostolic constitution "Munificentissimus Deus":

"Just as the New Covenant surpasses the Old, so the new Ark of the Covenant (Our Lady) is superior to the old. The old Ark contained the word of God inscribed on stone tablets, but the new Ark contained the Incarnate Word of God. The old Ark held the Law that could not justify, but the new Ark held Jesus Christ Who Himself is the eternal New Covenant with God; He Who justifies and saves."

There are several direct parallels between between the Old Testament accounts of the Ark and the account of Mary in the Gospel of Luke:

• The words of Ex. 40:34-38, referring to the cloud of the Lord's presence "covering" the tent of the Ark are echoed in Gabriel's words to Mary in Luke 1:35: "...the power of the Most High will cover you with its shadow."
• David greets the Ark in fearful awe with the words "How shall the ark of the Lord come to me?" (2 Sam.6:9); Elizabeth greets Mary with the words, "Who am I that the mother of my Lord should come to me?"
• In 2 Samuel 6:10-12 the ark is sent to the hill country of Judea and stays at the household of Obededom for three months; similary, Mary journeys to Elizabeth's house and stays there three months.
• Just as David danced in the presence of the Ark (2 Sam. 6:14), the babe in Elizabeth's womb (John the Baptist) dances in the presence of God's Shekhinah in Mary's womb (Luke 1:41).

Additionally, in Revelation, St. John, immediately after seeing the Ark in heaven, sees the woman "clothed with the sun" who bears the Child who will rule the world (Revelation 11:19-12:5).

This teaching is found in the writings of the Fathers of the Church. A sermon attributed to St.Athanasius addresses the Blessed Virgin thus: "O Ark of the new covenant, clad on all sides with purity in place of gold; the one in whom is found the golden vase with its true manna, that is the flesh in which lies the God-head." St. Gregory Thaumaturgus wrote: "Let us chant the melody that has been taught us by the inspired harp of David, and say, ‘Arise, O Lord, into thy rest; thou, and the ark of thy sanctuary.’ For the Holy Virgin is in truth an ark, wrought with gold both within and without, that has received the whole treasury of the sanctuary" (Homily on the Annunciation to the Holy Virgin Mary).http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2005/0510fea5.asp

In the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary, one of the titles by which Mary is addressed is "Ark of the Covenant".

Media references

Television and film

Indiana and Sallah lift up the Ark of the Covenant

• The Ark of the Covenant was the focus of the 1981 adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark. The plot suggests that Adolf Hitler, deeply interested insupernatural power and the occult, wants to acquire the Ark in order to rule the world. The Ark's location in the movie is Tanis, Egypt. Intrepid archaeologist Indiana Jones opposes the Nazis and succeeds in keeping it from them. The Ark is shown to be extremely powerful and dangerous to those who do not understand it. It is last seen being boxed up and stored in a vast U.S. government warehouse, presumably never to be seen again. The crate in which the Ark is placed at the end of the movie has the serial number 9906753. A very similar serial number (9906573) also appears on a mysterious crate in the first official Teaser poster to the fourth Indiana Jones film, leading to fan speculation that the Ark will be showcased once again. In the sequel Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, a picture of the Ark is shown on the wall of a tomb from the First Crusade.
• The Ark is "seen again" (after the events of Raiders) in Honey, I Blew Up the Kid. It is in the giant warehouse where Wayne Szalinski's (Rick Moranis) shrink ray is held. It is seen in its crate when he finds his shrink ray.
• In the TNT movie a young man named Flynn Carsen becomes the new Librarian and discovers that many treasures including the Ark are hidden in a secret chamber miles below the surface of the earth.
• A first season episode of the television series uses the Ark as a plot device. In "The Royal Couple of Thieves", Xena recruits the King Of Thieves to assist her in stealing the Ark from a profiteering warlord. Xena returns it to its rightful people.

Games

• In the video game Tomb Raider series, Lara Croft discovers the Ark in an unseen adventure.
• In the video game Bloodrayne, it is inside a wooden crate inside a Nazi stronghold.
• In the computer game Medieval 2, the Ark is an 'ancillary' that can be acquired by completing a Crusade mission requested by the Pope.
• In the computer game Evil Genius, the Ark is a piece of loot that can be stolen in an optional mission, though it cannot be used or opened.
• In the computer game Spider-Man, in the 'What If?' mode, the Ark is in one of the warehouse crates.
• In the computer game (renamed Secrets of the Ark in North America) the Ark is featured prominently.
• The time-travel card game Chrononauts includes a card called "Lost Ark of the Covenant" which players can symbolically acquire from the year 587 BC.
• In the computer game Riddle Of The Sphinx the Ark is in the sphinx in a hidden chamber the player is trying to get to. When opened, the credits roll.
• In the Halo series, "The Ark" is a weapon control station being sought out by the alien races that make up "The Covenant" in their efforts of cleansing the universe of impure life. Thus the Ark of the Covenant is a play on words in the series.

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Ark+of+the+Covenant

Will Michael Jackson's Funeral Be Jehovah's Witness—or Muslim?

Today 11:08 AM PDT by LESLIE GORNSTEIN

Getty Images; Pool Photographer/Getty Images

Weren't the Jackson family Jehovah's Witnesses? How will that affect the funeral?
—Bet

Other fans are asking me similar questions, but instead wondering whether Michael Jackson's funeral may be Muslim. See, in 2007, his brother Jermaine Jackson told the media that Michael had shown interest in the religion, and there was brief speculation that Jackson converted from Jehovah's Witness to Islam.

Now, we know this: (a) There will be no memorial service at Neverland, (b) theremight be some kind of Jackson-related eventon Tuesday at the Staples Center, (c) his body is waiting at Forest Lawn cemetery in Los Angeles, and (d) there are signs of a private family service on Sunday, possibly the funeral.

However, of the two religions mentioned above, if the funeral is religious at all, it will probably swing toward...

Jehovah's Witness, the religion of Jackson's parents. Jackson himself was said to be an ardent Witness throughout most, if not all, of his life, and—unlike the Islam conversion stories—there are plenty of accounts to back that up. As late as four years ago, Jackson was publicly proclaiming his adherence to that faith, and he never publicly confirmed a conversion to Islam.

Jackson family friend Firpo Carr told CNN this week that Jackson once said "he wanted me to study the bible with him because he was raised as one of Jehovah's Witnesses early in life, [and] he would want his children to be raised the same way."

In general, Witnesses believe that true Christians should remain separate from the world as much as possible and that the Bible is God's word. They also believe that a select 144,000 faithful will go to heaven to rule alongside Jesus Christ.

So what might M.J.'s funeral look like if it does follow Jehovah's Witness tradition?

Witnesses believe that nothing in a person survives death, including the soul. Wakes and directly addressing the dead person are both banned in Witness funerals. The services are relatively short at 15 to 30 minutes.

Jackson family attorney Brian Oxman has told a British tab that M.J. will be buried, not cremated, though the family has not officially confirmed or denied that. Most Witnesses are cremated or buried within three days of death, though there is no specific direction regarding time before interment.

In contrast, Muslims traditionally frown upon autopsies and bury their dead quickly, often within 24 or 48 hours of death. There is generally silence during the procession to the burial site, and the body is buried with the head facing toward Mecca.

http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/ask_the_answer_bitch/b132450_will_michael_jacksons_funeral_be.html

Bahá'í history

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bahá'í history is often traced through a sequence of leaders, beginning with the Báb's May 23, 1844 declaration in Shiraz, and ultimately resting on an administrative order established by the central figures of the religion. The religion had its background in two earlier movements in the nineteenth century, Shaykhism and Babism.^[1] Shaykism centred on theosophical doctrines and many Shaykhis expected the return of the hidden Twelfth Imam. Many Shaykhis joined the messianic Babi movement in the 1840s where the Báb proclaimed himself to be the return of the hidden Imam. As the Babi movement spread in Iran, violence broke out between the ruling Shi'a Muslim government and the Babis, and ended when government troops massacred the Babis, and executed the Bab in 1850.^[1]

The Bab had spoken of another messianic figure, He whom God shall make manifest. One of the followers of the Bab, Bahá'u'lláh was imprisoned by the Iranian government after the Bab's execution and then exiled to Iraq, and then to Constantinople and Adrianople in the Ottoman Empire.^[1] In 1863 in Baghdad, Bahá'u'lláh claimed to be the messianic figure expected by the Bab's writings. Bahá'ís consider the Baha'i religion to start from Bahá'u'lláh's statements in 1863.

At the time of Bahá'u'lláh's death the tradition was mostly confined to thePersian and Ottoman empires, at which time he had followers in thirteen countries of Asia and Africa.^[2] Leadership of the religion then passed on to`Abdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son, who was appointed by Bahá'u'lláh, and was accepted by almost all Bahá'ís.<sup>[1]</sup> Under the leadership of `Abdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution.^[3]

After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Bahá'í community was passed on to his grandson, Shoghi Effendi, who was appointed in `Abdu'l-Bahá's will. The document appointed Shoghi Effendi as the first Guardian, and called for the election of the Universal House of Justice once the Bahá'í Faith had spread sufficiently for such elections to be meaningful. During Shoghi Effendi's time as leader of the religion there was a great increase in the number of Baha'is, and he presided over the election of many National Spiritual Assemblies.^[1]

Shoghi Effendi died in 1957, and because he was childless he had found it impossible to appoint another Guardian after himself to succeed him. In 1963 the Universal House of Justice was elected. Since 1963 the Universal House of Justice has been elected every five years and remains the successor and leading institution of the religion.^[1] See Bahá'í Faith by country for further information per country.

Shaykhi movement

Main article: Shaykhism

In Islam, the Mahdi is a messianic figure who is believed to be a descendant of Muhammad who will return near the end of time to restore the world and the religion of God.^[4] While both Sunni and Shi'agroups believe in the Mahdi, the largest Shi'a group, the Twelvers, believe that the Mahdi is the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed to have gone into occultation since 874 CE.^[4]

In the Shi'a view the Twelfth Imam first went into a "Minor Occultation" between 874 and 941 CE where the Hidden Imam still communicated with the community through four official intermediaries. The "Greater Occultation" is then defined from the time when the Hidden Imam ceased to communicate regularly until the time when he returns to restore the world.^[5]

[edit]Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsá'í

Main article: Shaykh Ahmad

The Shaykhi movement was a school of theology within Twelver Shi'a Islam that was started through the teaching of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsá'í. Shaykh Ahmad's teachings included that the Imams were spiritual beings and thus, in contrast to the widespread Shi'a belief, that the Imams existed within spiritual bodies, and not material bodies.^[6] He also taught that there must always exist the "Perfect Shi'a" who serves as an intermediary between the Imams and the believers, and is the one who can visualize the consciousness of the Hidden Imam.^[6][7]

In 1822 he left Iran and went to Iraq due to the controversy that his teachings had brought. There he also found himself at the centre of debate, thus deciding to move to Mecca, he died in 1826 on his way there.^[6]

[edit]Siyyid Kázim-i-Rashtí

Main article: Siyyid Kázim

Before the death of Shaykh Ahmad, he appointed Siyyid Kázim of Rasht to lead the Shaykhí movement, which he did until his death in 1843. Siyyid Kázim formulated many of the thoughts that were ambiguously expressed by Shaykh Ahmad including the doctrine of salvation history and the cycles of revelation.^[6] His teaching brought a sense of millenarian hope among the Shaykhis that the Hidden Imam may return.^[6] Siyyid Kazim did not leave a successor, but before his death in December, 1843, he had counselled his followers to leave their homes to seek the Mahdi, who according to his prophecies would soon appear.^[6][8]

[edit]Báb

Main article: Báb

Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel

Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad, who later took on the title theBáb, was born on October 20, 1819, in Shiraz to amerchant of the city; his father died while he was quite young and the boy was raised by his maternal uncleḤájí Mírzá Siyyid `Alí, who was also a merchant.^[8][9]

In May 1844 the Báb proclaimed to Mulla Husayn, one of the Shaykhis, to be the one whose coming was prophesized by Shaykh Ahmad and Siyyid Kázim and the bearer of divine knowledge.^[10] Within five months, seventeen other disciples of Siyyid Káẓim had recognized the Báb as a Manifestation of God.^[11][12]These eighteen disciples were later to be known as theLetters of the Living and were given the task of spreading the new faith across Iran and Iraq.^[10] The Báb initially attracted most of the followers of the Shaykhí movement, but soon his teachings went far beyond those roots and attracted prominent followers across Iran. His followers were known as Bábís.

After some time, preaching by the Letters of the Living led to opposition by the Islamic clergy, prompting the Governor of Shiraz to order the Báb's arrest. After being house arrest in Shiraz from June 1845 to September 1846,^[10] the Báb spent several months in Isfahan debating clergy, many who became sympathetic.^[13] He was then ordered by the Shah to Tehran in Junary 1847; after spending several months in a camp outside Tehran, the Prime Minister sent the Báb to Tabriz in the northwestern corner of the country, where he was confined.^[10]

He was then transferred to the fortress of Máh-Kú in the province of Azarbaijan close to the Turkish border. During his incarceration there, the Báb began his most important work, the Persian Bayán, which he never finished. He was then transferred to the fortress of Chihríq in April 1848.^[8] In that place as well, the Báb's popularity grew and his jailors relaxed restrictions on him. Hence the Prime Minister ordered the Báb back to Tabriz where the government called on religious authorities to put the Báb on trial for blasphemy and apostasy.^[10] Bábism was also spreading across the country, and the Islamic government saw it as a threat to state religion and several military confrontations took place between government and Bábí forces. Communities of Bábís established themselves in Iran and Iráq,^[14] and in 1850 reached several cities of Azarbaijan.^[15]

In mid 1850 a new prime-minister, Amir Kabir,^[16] ordered the execution of the Báb, probably because various Bábí insurrections had been defeated and the movement's popularity appeared to be waning. The Báb was brought back to Tabríz from Chihríq, so that he could be shot by a firing squad. On the morning of July 9, 1850, the Báb was taken to the courtyard of the barracks in which he was being held, where thousands of people had gathered to watch. The Báb and a companion were suspended on a wall and a large firing squad prepared to shoot.^[10] After the order was given to shoot and the smoke cleared, the Báb was no longer in the courtyard and his companion stood there unharmed; the bullets apparently had not harmed either man, but had cut the rope suspending them from the wall.^[17] The soldiers subsequently found the Báb in another part of the barracks, completely unharmed. He was tied up for execution a second time, a second firing squad was ranged in front of them, and a second order to fire was given. This time, the Báb and his companion were killed.^[10] Their remains were dumped outside the gates of the town to be eaten by animals.

The remains, however, were rescued by a handful of Bábis and were hidden. Over time the remains were secretly transported by way of Isfahan, Kirmansháh, Baghdad and Damascus, to Beirut and thence by sea to Acre, Israel on the plain below Mount Carmel in 1899.^[18] In 1909, the remains were then interred in a special tomb, erected for this purpose by `Abdu'l-Bahá, on Mount Carmel in the Bahá'í Holy Land inHaifa and remains an important place of pilgrimage for Bahá'ís.

While the Báb claimed a station of revelation, he also claimed no finality for his revelation.^[19] A constant theme in his works, especially the Persian Bayan was that of the great Promised One, the next embodiment of the Primal Will, whom the Báb termed He whom God shall make manifest, promised in the sacred writings of previous religions would soon establish the Kingdom of God on the Earth.^[20][10] In the books written by the Báb he constantly entreats his believers to follow He whom God shall make manifest when he arrives.^[19]

Before his death, the Báb had been in correspondence with two brothers, Bahá'u'lláh and Subh-i-Azalwho, after the death of many prominent disciples, emerged as the mostly likely leaders.^[21] In a letter sent to Subh-i-Azal, then aged around nineteen, the Báb appears to have indicated a high station or leadership position.^[21] The letter also orders Subh-i-Azal to obey the Promised One when he appears;^[22] in practise, Subh-i-Azal, however, seems to have had little widespread legitimacy and authority.^[21] Bahá'u'lláh in the meantime, while in private hinted at his own high station, in public kept his messianic secret from most and supported Subh-i-Azal in the interest of unity.^[21] In 1863 inBaghdad, he made his first public declaration and eventually was recognized by the vast majority of Bábís as "He whom God shall make manifest" and his followers began calling themselves Bahá'ís.^[23]

[edit]Bahá'u'lláh

Main article: Bahá'u'lláh

Bahá'u'lláh was born on November 12, 1817, in Tehran. Bahá'u'lláh's father, Mírzá Buzurg, served asvizier to Imám-Virdi Mírzá, the twelfth son of Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar. Mírzá Buzurg was later appointed governor of Burujird and Lorestan,^[24] a position that he was stripped of during a government purge whenMuhammad Shah came to power. After his father died, Bahá'u'lláh was asked to take a government post by the new vizier Haji Mirza Aqasi, but he declined the position.^[23]

At the age of 28, Bahá'u'lláh received a messenger, Mullá Husayn, telling him of the Báb, whose message he accepted, becoming a Bábí. Bahá'u'lláh began to spread the new cause, especially in his native province of Núr, becoming recognized as one of its most influential believers.^[24][21] The accompanying government suppression of the Báb's religion resulted in Bahá'u'lláh's being imprisoned twice and enduring bastinado torture once^[24] Bahá'u'lláh also attended the conference of Badasht, where 81 prominent Babis met for 22 days; at that conference where there was a discussion between those Babis who wanted to maintain Islamic law and those who believed that the Báb's message began a new dispenation, Bahá'u'lláh took the pro-change side, which eventually won out.^[21]

In 1852, two years after the execution of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh met briefly with a couple of radical Babi leaders and learnt of an assassination plan against the Shah, Nasser-al-Din Shah, in retaliation for the Báb's execution. Bahá'u'lláh condemned the plan, but on August 15, 1852 Babis attempted the assassination of the Shah and failed.^[21] Notwithstanding the assassins' claim that they were working alone, the entire Bábí community was blamed, and a slaughter of several thousand Bábís followed. Many of the Bábís who were not killed, including Bahá'u'lláh, were imprisoned in the Síyáh-Chál (Black Pit), an underground dungeon of Tehran.^[25] According to Bahá'u'lláh, it was during his imprisonment in the Síyáh-Chál that he had several mystical experiences, and that he received a vision of a Maiden from God, through whom he received his mission as a Messenger of God and as the One whose coming the Báb had prophesied.^[25][21]

Map of Bahá'u'lláh's banishments

The government later found Bahá'u'lláh innocent of complicity in the assassination plot, and he was released from the Síyáh-Chál, but the government exiled him from Iran. Bahá'u'lláh chose to go to Iraq in the Ottoman Empire and arrived in Baghdad in early 1853.^[21] A small number of Babis, including his half-brother Subh-i-Azal, followed Bahá'u'lláh to Baghdad. An increasing number of Bábís considered Baghdad the new centre for leadership of the Bábí religion, and a flow of pilgrims started coming there from Persia. In Baghdad people began to look to Subh-i-Azal for leadership less and less due to his policy of remaining hidden, and instead saw Bahá'u'lláh as their leader.^[21][26] Subh-i-Azal started to try to discredit Bahá'u'lláh and further divided the community.^[26] The actions of Subh-i-Azal drove many people away from the religion and allowed its enemies to continue their persecution.^[23]

On April 10, 1854 Bahá'u'lláh left Baghdad in order to distance himself from Subh-i-Azal and as to avoid becoming the source of disagreement within the Babi community; he left with one companion to the mountains of Kurdistan, north-east of Baghdad, near the city Sulaymaniyah.^[23] For two years Bahá'u'lláh lived alone in the mountains of Kurdistan^[25] living the life of a Sufi dervish.^[21] At one point someone noticed his remarkable penmanship, which brought the curiosity of the instructors of the localSufi orders.^[23] During his time in Kurdistan he wrote many notable books including the Four Valleys.^[25]In Baghdad, given the lack of firm and public leadership by Subh-i-Azal, the Babi community had fallen into disarray.^[23] Some Babis, including Bahá'u'lláh's family, thus searched for Bahá'u'lláh, and pleaded with him to come back to Baghdad, which he did in 1856.^[21]

Bahá'u'lláh remained in Baghdád for seven more years. During this time, while keeping his perceived station as the Manifestation of God hidden, he taught the Báb's teachings. He published many books and verses including the Book of Certitude and the Hidden Words.^[21] Bahá'u'lláh's gatherings attracted many notables, both locals and Iranian pilgrims, giving him greater influence in Baghdad and in Iran. His rising influence in the city, and the revival of the Persian Bábí community gained the attention of his enemies in Islamic clergy and the Persian government.^[21][27] They were eventually successful in having the Ottoman government call Bahá'u'lláh from Baghdad to Constantinople.^[27]

Before he left Baghdad on the way to Constantinople, Bahá'u'lláh camped for twelve days in the Garden of Ridván near Baghdad starting on April 22, 1863. During his stay in the garden a large number of friends came to see him before he left. It was during his time in the Garden of Ridván that Bahá'u'lláh declared to his companions his perceived mission and station as a Messenger of God.^[25] Today Bahá'ís celebrate the twelve days that Bahá'u'lláh was in the Garden of Ridván as the festival of Ridván.

After travelling for four-month over land, Bahá'u'lláh arrived in the capital of the Ottoman Empire,Constantinople (now Istanbul). Although not a formal prisoner yet, the forced exile from Baghdad was the beginning of a long process which would gradually move him into further exiles and eventually the penal colony of Akká, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). Bahá'u'lláh and his family, along with a small group ofBábís, stayed in Constantinople for only four months. Due to his refusal to build alliances with the Ottoman politicians, Bahá'u'lláh had no means of resisting pressure from the Iranian ambassador to exile him further away, and Sultan Abdülâziz banished Bahá'u'lláh to Adrianople (current-day Edirne), which was a site for the exile of political prisoners.^[21]

`Abdu'l-Bahá in Adrianople with his brothers and companions of Bahá'u'lláh.

During the month of December 1863, Bahá'u'lláh and his family embarked on a twelve-day journey to Adrianople. Bahá'u'lláh stayed in Adrianople for four and a half years. In Adrianople Bahá'u'lláh made his claim to be Him whom God shall make manifest more public through letters andtablets.^[21] Bahá'u'lláh's assertion as an independent Manifestation of God made Subh-i-Azal's leadership position irrelevant; Subh-i-Azal, upon hearing Bahá'u'lláh's words in a tablet read to him, challenging him to accept Bahá'u'lláh's revelation, refused and challenged Bahá'u'lláh to a test of divine will at a local mosque, but he lost face when he did not appear.^[21] This caused a break within the Bábí community, and the followers of Bahá'u'lláh became known as Bahá'ís, while the followers of Subh-i-Azal became known as Azalis.

Starting in 1866, while in Adrianople, Bahá'u'lláh started writing a series of letters to world rulers, proclaiming his station as the promised one of all religions.^[21] His letters also asked them to renounce their material possessions, work together to settle disputes, and endeavour towards the betterment of the world and its peoples. Some of these leaders written to in the coming years include Pope Pius IX,Napoleon III of France, Czar Alexander II of Russia, Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland, Násiri’d-Dín Sháh of the Persian Empire and the rulers of America.^[21]

Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh

The disagreements between the Bahá'ís and the Azalís allowed the Ottoman and Persian authorities to exile Bahá'u'lláh once again. Bahá'u'lláh and his family left Adrianople on August 12, 1868 and after a journey by land and sea arrived in Acre on August 31. The first years in Acre imposed very harsh conditions on, and held very trying times for, Bahá'u'lláh. Mirzá Mihdí, Bahá'u'lláh's son, was suddenly killed at the age of twenty-two when he fell through a skylight while pacing back and forth in prayer and meditation. After some time, the people and officials began to trust and respect Bahá'u'lláh, and thus the conditions of the imprisonment were eased and eventually, after Sultan `Abdu'l-`Aziz's death, he was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places. From 1877 until 1879 Bahá'u'lláh lived in the house of Mazra'ih.^[21]

The final years of Bahá'u'lláh's life were spent in the Mansion of Bahjí, just outside Acre, even though he was still formally a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire. During his years in Acre and Bahjí, Bahá'u'lláh produced many volumes of work including the Kitáb-i-Aqdas.^[21] On May 9, 1892 Bahá'u'lláh contracted a slight fever which grew steadily over the following days, abated, and then finally took his life on May 29, 1892. He was buried in a Shrine located next to the Mansion of Bahjí. During his lifetime, communities of Bahá'ís were established in Armenia, Burma, Egypt, Georgia, India, Lebanon, (what is now) Pakistan, (what was then) Palestine, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, and Turkmenistan.^[14]

[edit]`Abdu'l-Bahá

Main article: `Abdu'l-Bahá

Bahá'u'lláh was succeeded by his eldest son, `Abdu'l-Bahá. Designated as the "Center of the Covenant" and Head of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh designated him in his will as the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. [1]

`Abdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment. This imprisonment continued until `Abdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the "Young Turk" revolution in 1908.

Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Bahá'í Faith. `Abdu'l-Bahá died in Haifa on November 28, 1921 and is now buried in one of the front rooms in the Shrine of the Báb. During his lifetime communities of Bahá'ís formed in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Great Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Russian S.F.S.R., South Africa, Switzerland, Tunisia, and the United States of America.^[14]

[edit]Shoghi Effendi

Main article: Shoghi Effendi

`Abdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament [2] is the charter of the Bahá'í administrative order. In this document `Abdu'l-Bahá established the institutions of the appointed Guardianship and the electedUniversal House of Justice. In that same document he appointed his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, as the first Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.

Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated the sacred writings of the Faith; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá'í community; developed the Bahá'í World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the Faith, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.

[edit]Custodians

Main article: Hands of the Cause

With the unexpected passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, the faith was left without a clear candidate for Guardian. The Hands of the Cause, appointed by Shoghi Effendi, took the necessary administrative roles at the Bahá'í World Centre, and organized the election of the Universal House of Justice, from which they excluded themselves from membership. By the time of the election of the Universal House of Justice, Bahá'í communities had been established in many of the countries of the world.^[14] Seventy nations had organized their communities to elect National Spiritual Assemblies.^[28]

[edit]Universal House of Justice

Main article: Universal House of Justice

After the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963, it then ruled that given the unique situation and the provisions of the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá, it was not possible to appoint another Guardian. The Universal House of Justice today remains the supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, and its nine members are elected every five years. As recently as 2001 the number of countries with orgranized communities electing National Spiritual Assemblies was 182.^[29][30]

Quran, Bible and Torah

Belief in the Books

Belief in revealed books is a basis of faith. These books include all the commandments that Allah disclosed to His messenger in order to promulgate them to save people from going astray and lead them to the Right Path. The Muslims believe in the Qur’an and in all the holy books that precede it, which Allah sent down to the messengers of previous nations. To this effect Allah states: The Messenger believes in what that has been revealed to him from his Lord, as do the men of faith. Each one (of them) believes in Allah, His angels, His books, and His apostles. (Soorah Al-Baqarah 2:285).

Some distinctions in the Islamic belief are listed as follows:

Muslims believe that all Books that Allah has sent to mankind through His messengers have the same purpose. Namely, to invite people to worship the One God, Allah. [Al-Baqarah 2: 34]

Being words from Allah, they are free from any imperfection or errors. [Al-Baqarah 2:136, Ale-Imran 3:50, An-Nisaa 4:54]

The Qur’an provides the names of previous books which Muslims accept as having been divinely revealed to previous prophets. The books named in the Qur’an are the Books of Abraham [Al-Baqarah 2: 136, Ale-Imran 3:50, An-Nisaa 4:54], The Torah of Moses [Al-Maidah 5:46, Ale-Imran 3:48], the Zaboor (Psalms) of David, and the Injeel (not the Gospels contained in the New Testament of the Bible) of Jesus [An-Nisaa 4:163, Al-Maidah 5: 113]. There is no mention in the Qur’an of the names of books which might have been sent to other prophets, making it impossible for a Muslim to judge books as divinely revealed as are claimed by other religions to be so. The Qur’an teaches that the books named above have been adulterated either through wrong translations, or by means of changes, omissions and additions that suited the purpose of certain people over the ages. [Al-Ma-idah 5:46, Ale-Imran 3:48]

All of the scriptures preceding the Qur’an have been tampered with and distorted by their people. Do you (O believers) hope that they (the people of the book) will be true to you when a party of them used to hear the words of Allah (their Book), then they knowingly changed it after they had understood it? [Al Baqarah 2: 75]. It is a fact that all original texts of these Holy Books have been lost, and it is probable that no genuine copy of any of them exists in its original language.

The Qur’an is protected by Allah from change and tampering. No doubt We have sent down the Dhikr (i.e. Qur’an and Sunnah) and surely We will guard it. [Al-Hijr 15:9]. It will be kept as such, by means of Allah’s bounty, until He removes it from the earth. Anas (radiallahu ‘anhu) narrated: Allah’s Messenger (sallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam) said: It is among the signs of the last Hour that knowledge would be taken away. This is explained in another hadeeth: Allah does not take away knowledge by snatching it from the people but He takes it away by taking away the scholars ... [Saheeh Muslim p.1404]

The Qur’an that was revealed to Muhammad (sallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam) is in truth the Words of Allah, not a created thing. And if you are in doubt concerning that which We have sent down to our slave (Muhammad, peace be upon him), then produce a Surah the like thereof and call your witnesses beside Allah if you are truthful. [Al Baqarah 2:23]. Falsehood cannot be added to it nor can a portion be removed from it. It is a miracle which stands on its own merits, and the like of it in terms of speech, eloquence, meaning and laws could not and never can be produced by any other than Allah.

Allah has sent down the Qur’an to make manifest everything which He considers to be for the good of the people in this world as well as in the Hereafter, and there is no inconsistency in its verses. Allah approved its recitation as a means of devotion, and considered the best of Muslims to be the one who learns the Qur’an and teaches it. [see Al-Bukhaari, narrated on the authority of Uthmaan bin Affaan, Vol. VI p.502]. And We did not send any apostle before you (O Muhammad) but We revealed to him that there is none who has the right to be worshipped but I (Allah). So worship Me (alone and none else. [Al-Anbiyaa 21:25].

The Qur’an And The Taurah (Torah)

The Tauraah (Torah) is now an Arabicized term, which in Hebrew means law. The Qur’an does not offer any specifications of the Books of the Tauraah; but the association that links the name of Moses to some of them indicates that they are the five books which, according to the ancient Hebrews were revealed to Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Later on, however, Hebrews expanded the meaning of the term Torah and used it to include all the books known as the Old Testament.

The Qur’an also criticizes the Tauraah, showing that its disciples have slanted its teachings: Of the Jews there are those who displace words from their (right) places. [An-Nisaa 4:46]. The slanting of meaning here results from a misinterpretation of the scripture by applying words to things for which they were not originally meant, or from hiding a part of Allah’s message, or from making certain additions or omissions in the original sense. It also results from neglecting the commandments and rules which in itself necessitated a considerable length of time and their constant suppression. In this regard, the Allah declares: They change the words from (their) right places and forget a good part of the Message that was sent them. [Al-Maa-idah 5:14].

The Qur’an’s Attitude Towards The Gospels

The number of Gospels increased greatly after Jesus Christ (‘alaihi salaam), and this has been confirmed by the chroniclers of Christianity. At the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the Christian Church chose to select the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

The Qur’an refuses certain sections of these Gospels and does not admit they were sent down from Allah. It explains that Allah sent down one Gospel to His Messenger Jesus (‘alaihi sallam), and that it is not the Gospels written after him.

On the other hand, the Qur’an states that Christians forget a part of Allah’s Message: From those, too, who call themselves Christians, We did take a Covenant, but they forgot a good part of the Message that was sent them. So we estranged them, with enmity and hatred between the one and the other, to the Day of Judgement. And soon will God show them what it is they have done. [Al-Ma-idah 5:14].

In short, all of the old scriptures are abrogated by the Noble Qur’an. Allah subhaanahu wa ta’aala, said: And We have sent down to you the Book in truth confirming the scripture that came before it and Muhayminan (trustworthy in highness and a witness) over it (old scriptures). [Al-Maaidah 5:48] The Qur’an therefore, is a judge over all the old scriptures and accordingly it is forbidden to act upon any of the old scriptures except in what is authenticated and acknowledged by the Qur’an.

Brigham Young

Brigham Young (June 1, 1801 – August 29, 1877) was a leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and was thepresident of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1847 until his death. Young was also the firstgovernor of the Utah Territory. 

Young had a variety of nicknames, among the most popular of which is the "American Moses,"^[1](alternatively the "Modern Moses" or the "Mormon Moses"^[2]) because, like the biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through adesert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was also dubbed the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality, and was commonly called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. Young's legacy is controversial, however. While having helped to organize a large religion, as well as the accession of Utah Territory to the United States, concerns persist about his role in the Utah Waragainst the United States government and his beliefs about black people.

Early life until Joseph Smith's successor

Young was born to a farming family in Vermont and worked as a traveling carpenter and blacksmith, among other trades.^[3] Young first married in 1824 to Miriam Angeline Works. Though he had converted to theMethodist faith in 1823, Young was drawn to Mormonismafter reading the Book of Mormon shortly after its publication in 1830. He officially joined the new church in 1832 and traveled to Upper Canada as amissionary. After his first wife died in 1833, Young joined many Mormons in establishing a community in Kirtland, Ohio. 

Young was strongly committed to his new faith. He was ordained an apostle and joined the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as one of its inaugural members on February 14, 1835. During the anti-Mormon persecutions in Missouri in the late 1830s, Young suffered the loss of all his property. In 1840 and 1841, he went to England as a missionary; many of those Young converted moved to theUnited States to join Mormon communities there. In the 1840s Young was among those who established the city of Nauvoo, Illinois on the Mississippi River. It became the headquarters of the church and was comparable in size to the city of Chicago at the time. 

While in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, Joseph Smith, president of the church, was killed by an armed mob in 1844. Several claimants to the role of church emerged during the succession crisisthat ensued. Before a large meeting convened to discuss the succession in Nauvoo, Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of the curch's First Presidency, argued that there could be no successor to the deceased prophet and that he should be made the "Protector" of the church.^[4] Young opposed this reasoning and motion. Smith had earlier recorded a revelation which stated that the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles were "equal in authority and power" to the First Presidency,^[5] so Young claimed that the leadership of the church fell to the Twelve Apostles.^[6] Many of Young's followers would later reminisce that while Young spoke to the congregation, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, to which they attributed the power of God.^[7] For many in attendance at this meeting, this occurrence was accepted as a sign that Young was to lead the church as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Rigdon became the president of a separate church organization based inPittsburgh, Pennsylvania and other potential successors emerged to lead what became other denominations of the movement.

Church presidency

Initial actions as church president

After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve, in 1847 Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was declared president of the church. Repeated conflict led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to a territory in what is now Utah, then part ofMexico. Young organized the journey that would take the faithful to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, in 1846 , then to the Salt Lake Valley. Young arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as Pioneer Day in Utah.

Conflict with U.S. government

Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Mormon colonies were incorporated into theUnited States through Mexican Cession, Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret. The Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory, and Young was installed as governor. As governor and church president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic.^[8] 

When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obfuscation of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan decided to install a non-Mormon governor. Buchanan accepted the reports of the judges without any further investigation, and sent troops to depose Young. The troops passed by the bloody Kansas–Missouri war without intervening in it. When Young received word that federal troops were headed to Utah with his replacement, he organized a militia to fight the federal government. During this rebellion, now called the Utah War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter. Young made plans to burn Salt Lake City and move his followers to Mexico, but at the last minute he relented and agreed to step down as governor. He later received a pardon from Buchanan for his role in the episode. Relations between Young and future governors and U.S. Presidents were mixed.

Role in Mountain Meadows massacre

A controversial issue is the extent of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows massacre,^[9]which took place in Washington County in 1857. Authorities in Iron County had sent a messenger to Salt Lake City, a three-day ride, seeking direction from Young. Young sent a message instructing them to leave the wagon party alone, but that message arrived too late to avert the massacre. Over 120 men, women and children were killed by local Mormon militia members and possibly their Native American allies; their bodies were stripped of clothes and valuables and left to rot in the desert. John D. Lee, the only person convicted for participation in the massacre, made the following statement:^[10]

I have always believed, since that day, that General George A. Smith was then visiting Southern Utah to prepare the people for the work of exterminating Captain Fancher's train of emigrants, and I now believe that he was sent for that purpose by the direct command of Brigham Young.

Indictment for murder

Young was indicted on murder charges in 1872, based on the testimony of "Wild Bill" Hickman, who felt jilted when all but one of his nine wives left him after Young had him excommunicated. Young's murder indictment was thrown out when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the process used to select grand juries in Utah was unconstitutional, as it was designed to keep Mormons off juries.

Other notable actions

Young organized the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and in 1850 founded the University of Deseret, which is now the University of Utah. Brigham Young University, although not founded by Young, is named after him. In 1950, the state of Utah donated a marble statue of Young to the U.S. Capitol's National Statuary Hall Collection.^[11]

Beliefs about blacks

Young has been criticized for his beliefs about black people. As a church father, Young's beliefs contributed to the Mormon policy regarding blacks and priesthood which existed until 1978 (seeBlacks and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). Specific quotes by Young include:

Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so.^[12]

You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind....Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin.^[13]

Family Life

Plural marriage

Young was perhaps the most famous polygamist of the early church. He stated that upon being taught about plural marriage, "it was the first time in my life that I desired the grave."^[14] By the time of his death, Young had 56 children by 16 of his wives.^[15] In 1856, Young built the Lion House to accommodate his sizable family. This building remains a Salt Lake City landmark, together with theBeehive House, another Brigham Young family home. A contemporary of Young wrote: "It was amusing to walk by Brigham Young's big house, a long rambling building with innumerable doors. Each wife has an establishment of her own, consisting of parlor, bedroom, and a front door, the key of which she keeps in her pocket".^[16] Many of Young's wives were elderly widows whom he took responsibility to care over.

Listing of wives

What follows is a listing of Brigham Young's wives. An asterisk indicates "a wife not recognized in traditional histories"; names in parenthesis are the surnames of previous husbands; "divorce" indicates a formal dissolution of the marriage through secular or ecclesiastical procedures; "remarried" indicates later marriage of the wife to another husband.^[17] 

Brigham Young

1. Miriam Work - 1824 (2 children), included in his will.
2. Mary Ann Angell - 1834 (6 children), in will.
3. Lucy A. Decker (Seeley) - 1842 (7 children), in will.
4. Harriet E. Cook (Campbell) - 1843 (1 child), in will.
5. Lucy Augusta Adams (Cobb) 1843 (no children); requested cancellation of her sealing, 1846; sealed by proxy to Joseph Smith, 1848; from 1850 onward asked Brigham Young to give her to various men in civil marriage but still included in will.
6. Clarissa C. Decker - 1844 (5 children), in will.
7. Clarissa Ross-Chase - 1844 (4 children), in will.
8. Louisa Beaman (Smith) - 1844 (5 children).
9. Zina D. Huntington (Jacobs, Smith)- 1844 (1 child), in will.
10. Emily D. Partridge (Smith) 1844 - (7 children), in will. (daughter of Edward Partridge)
11. Eliza R. Snow (Smith) - 1844 (no children), in will.
12. *Elizabeth Fairchild - 1844 (no children), divorced 1855.
13. *Clarissa Blake - 1844 (no children).
14. *Rebecca W. Greenleaf Holman - 1844 (no children).
15. *Diana Chase - 1844 (no children), separated about 1848, remarried 1849.
16. Maria Lawrence (Smith) - 1844 (no children), separated 1845, remarried 1846.
17. Susannah Snively - 1844 (no children), in will.
18. Olive Grey Frost (Smith) - 1844 (no children).
19. *Mary A. Clark (Powers) - 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
20. *Mary Harvey Pierce - 1845 (no children).
21. Margrette W. Pierce (Whitesides) - 1845 (1 child), in will.
22. Emmeline Free - 1845 (10 children), in will. (former fiance of John D. Lee, her sister Louisa married Lee).
23. Mary Elizabeth Rollins (Lightner, Smith) - 1845 (no children); remained with legal husband yet considered herself deserted by Brigham Young, 1846.
24. Margaret Maria Alley - 1845 (2 children), in will.
25. *Mary Ann Turley - 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
26. *Olive Andrews (Smith) 1846 (no children).
27. *Emily Haws (Chesley, Whitmarsh) - 1846 (no children), separated 1848.
28. Ellen A. V. Rockwood - 1846 (no children).
29. *Abigail Marks (Works) - 1846 (no children).
30. *Mary Elizabeth Nelson (Greene) - 1846 (no children).
31. *Mary E. de la Montague (Woodward) - 1846 (no children); divorced and returned to legal husband, 1847; then returned to Brigham Young, 1851.
32. *Amy C. Cooper - 1846 (no children).
33. *Julia Foster (Hampton) - 1846 (no children), separated, 1846; married another man; returned to Brigham Young, 1855, only to leave him bitterly later.
34. *Abigail Harback (Hall) - 1846 (no children), returned to legal husband, 1846.
35. Naamah K. J. Carter (Twiss) - 1846 (no children), obtained cancellation of her sealing by 1871, anointed to deceased first husband but still included in will.
36. *Nancy Cressy (Walker) - 1846 (no children).
37. *Eliza Babcock - 1846 (no children), divorced 1853.
38. *Jane Terry (Tarbox, Young) - 1847.
39. Mary J. Bigelow - 1847 (no children), divorced 1851.
40. Lucy Bigelow - 1847 (3 children), in will.
41. *Sarah M. Guckin (Malin) - 1848 (no children).
42. Eliza Burgess - 1852 (1 child), in will.
43. *Mary Oldfield (Kelsey) - 1852 (no children).
44. *Catherine Resse (Clawson, Egan) - 1855 (no children).
45. Harriet E. Barney (Sagers) - 1856 (1 child), in will.
46. Harriet Amelia Folsom - 1863 (no children), in will.
47. Mary Van Cott (Cobb) - 1865 (1 child), in will. (Daughter of John Van Cott)
48. Ann Eliza Webb (Dee) 1868 (no children), divorced 1875; her story was the basis of Irving Wallace's 1962 biography The Twenty-Seventh Wife and of David Ebershoff's forthcoming novel, The 19th Wife
49. *Elizabeth Jones (Lewis, Jones) - 1869 (no children).
50. *Lydia Farnsworth (Mayhew) - 1870 (no children).
51. *Hannah Tapfield (King) - 1872 (no children).

Works

• Young, Brigham (1952). The Best from Brigham Young: Statements from His Sermons on Religion, Education, and Community Building, selected by Alice K. Chase, Deseret Book Company. 
• —— (1980). in Everett L. Cooley.: Diary of Brigham Young, 1857. Tanner Trust Fund, University of Utah Library. 
• —— (1925). Discourses of Brigham Young, selected by John A. Widtsoe, Deseret Book. 
• —— (1974). in Dean C. Jessee.: Letters of Brigham Young to His Sons. Deseret Book Company. 
• —— (1969). Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1801-1844. Eldon J. Watson. 
• —— (1971). Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1846-1847. Eldon J. Watson. 
• —— (1922). Teachings of President Brigham Young: Salvation for the Dead, the Spirit World, and Kindred Subjects. Seagull Press. 
• —— (1997). Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.  LDS Church publication number 35554.

Reference in Literature

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle based his first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet, on Mormon history, mentioning Young by name. When asked to comment on the story, which had "provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful", Conan Doyle noted, "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that tho it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history." However, Doyle's daughter stated that "You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons." ^[18]

Notable Descendents

Brigham Young has several noteworthy descendants:

• Brigham Young, Jr., LDS Church apostle
• John Willard Young, LDS Church apostle
• Joseph Angell Young, LDS Church apostle
• Leah D. Widtsoe, wife of apostle John A. Widtsoe, and a leading expert in Home Economics. She coauthored the book The Word of Wisdom: A Modern Interpretation with her husband and wrote a biopraphy of Brigham Young with her mother, Susa Young Gates, listed below.
• Mahonri Young, sculptor/artist
• Orson Scott Card, novelist
• Richard Whitehead Young, U.S. Army general and justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
• Sandra Tanner, critic of the LDS Church
• Susa Young Gates, Utah suffragist and women's rights activist
• Steve Young, professional American football player

See also

• Brigham Young (1940 film)
• Joseph Young
• Phineas Young
• Richards–Young family
• This Is The Place Heritage Park

Notes

1. ^ [1]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ Sheret, John G.: Brigham Young: Carpenter and Cabinet Maker
4. ^ Roberts, B. H. (ed.) History of the Church, vol. 7, ch. XVIII.
5. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 107:23-24.
6. ^ Roberts, B. H. (ed.) History of the Church, vol. 7, ch. XIX.
7. ^ ; Lynne Watkins Jorgensen, "The Mantle of the Prophet Joseph Smith Passes to Brother Brigham: One Hundred Twenty-one Testimonies of a Collective Spiritual Witness" in John W. Welch (ed.), 2005. Opening the Heavens: Accounts of Divine Manifestations, 1820-1844, Provo, Utah: BYU Press, pp. 374-480; Eugene English, "George Laub Nauvoo Diary," BYU Studies, 18 [Winter 1978]: 167 ("Now when President Young arose to address the congregation his voice was the voice of Bro[ther] Joseph and his face appeared as Joseph's face & should I have not seen his face but heard his voice I should have declared that it was Joseph"); William Burton Diary, May 1845. LDS Church Archives ("But their [Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith's] places were filed by others much better than I once supposed they could have been, the spirit of Joseph appeared to rest upon Brigham"); Benjamin F. Johnson, My Life's Review [Independence, 1928], p. 103-104 ("But as soon as he spoke I jumped upon my feet, for in every possible degree it was Joseph's voice, and his person, in look, attitude, dress and appearance; [it] was Joseph himself, personified and I knew in a moment the spirit and mantle of Joseph was upon him"); Life Story of Mosiah Hancock, p. 23, BYU Library ("Although only a boy, I saw the mantle of the Prophet Joseph rest upon Brigham Young; and he arose lion-like to the occasion and led the people forth"); Wilford Woodruff, Deseret News, 15 Mar. 1892 ("If I had not seen him with my own eyes, there is no one that could have convinced me that it was not Joseph Smith"); George Q. Cannon,Juvenile Instructor, 22 [29 Oct. 1870]: 174-175 ("When Brigham Young spoke it was with the voice of Joseph himself; and not only was it the voice of Joseph which was heard, but it seemed in the eyes of the people as though it was the every person of Joseph which stood before them").
8. ^ [3]
9. ^ Eakin, Emily. "Reopening a Mormon Murder Mystery; New Accusations That Brigham Young Himself Ordered an 1857 Massacre of Pioneers", New York Times, 2002-10-12, p. Section B, Page 9, Column 2.2002-10-12"> 
10. ^ Life and Confessions of John D. Lee(p. 225)
11. ^ [4]
12. ^ Journal of Discourses, volume 10, page 110.
13. ^ Journal of Discourses, volume 7, page 290.
14. ^ Polygamy and the Church: A History. The Mormons: People & Events. WGBH Educational Foundation (2007-04-30). Retrieved on 2007-05-29.
15. ^ Brigham Young Biography. Brigham Young University. Retrieved on 2007-07-01.
16. ^ DeHegermann-Lindencrone, Lillie. The Sunny Side of Diplomatic Life, 1875-1912. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved on 2006-07-18.
17. ^ D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, 1994, 685 pages, ISBN 1-56085-056-6; Appendix 6, "Biographical Sketches of Officers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints, 1830-47" pp. 607-608).
18. ^ [5]

References

• Leonard J. Arrington, Brigham Young: American Moses; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0-252-01296-8, (1985; Paperback, 1986).
• Hugh Nibley, Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints.
• Gary James Bergera, Conflict in the Quorum: Orson Pratt, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith

Ethiopia: lifting the mystery on rock churches 'built by angels'

LALIBELA, Ethiopia (AFP) — The ancient mystery shrouding Lalibela, Ethiopia's revered medieval rock-hewn churches, could be lifted by a group of French researchers given the go-ahead for the first comprehensive study of this world heritage site legend says was "built by angels".

The team will have full access to the network of 10 Orthodox chapels chiseled out of volcanic rock -- some standing 15 metres (42 feet) high -- in the mountainous heart of Ethiopia.

Local lore holds they were built in less than 25 years by their namesake, the 13th-century King Lalibela, with the help of angels after God ordered him to erect a "New Jerusalem".

The monolithic structures are located 500 kilometres (300 miles) north of the capital Addis Ababa. Long a holy pilgrimage site in a land proud of its Christian Orthodox heritage, they are also a travel draw in a poverty-stricken country hoping to boost tourism.

The multidisciplinary team of historians, archaeologists, topographers and a specialist in liturgy will spend several weeks probing the subterranean complex to try to identify its origins.

Historian Marie Laure Derat, with the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE), said "there are several theories". In one, "an Egyptian patriarch was believed to be the source of these structures, another says the 13th-century King Lalibela built the site from scratch."

"During the day the king would work with Ethiopian artisans and at night he would 'be helped by angels'. Some even cite a key role by the Knights Templar," she said, referring to one of the key Western Christian military orders of the Middle Ages.

Though earlier studies have been carried out, they were generally by lone researchers with restricted access who studied mainly church interiors .

Derat said the heretofore reluctant Orthodox church gave the French team carte blanche to probe "the entire site, not just the churches, to understand how the periods overlap and to read history in this open book that is Lalibela".

Funded by the French government and Ethiopian Airlines, the team is already certain the chapels were not built in one go.

Research chief Francois Xavier Fauvelle said three distinct periods have been identified in the maze of deep tunnels, passageways and chapels, some of which resemble ancient Greek temples.

"There was originally a basalt dome under which we found evidence of cave dwellers. Then there was the construction of a fortress with trenches, a perimetre wall and underground tunnels," he said pointing to rocks he said where once part of the defence wall.

"The third period was established thanks to an enormous mound of earth about 20 metres high that came from the excavation of the church of Gabriel Ruphael," he said, referring to the chapel some believe was once King Lalibela's residence.

"The Ruphael Gabriel church was probably part of the fortress and was turned into a church: the facade was extended, windows opened and a chapel dug out," said Fauvelle.

UNESCO added Lalibela to its world heritage list in 1978, a boon for tourism efforts in this country of 85 million where poverty is rampant and agriculture accounts for nearly half the economy. Visitors can already join organized tours of the site.

But the bid to shed light on its origins has not shaken the Orthodox clergy and faithful here, who contend that Lalibela arose with divine intervention.

"It is God through his angels who made these churches," said Alebachew Reta, spokesman for the Lalibela clergy who insisted "the 10 churches were created in just 24 years."

"You can observe that even one would be difficult to build in that space of time. So for us it is God's work," said Reta. "For the one who created mankind, building these churches was not difficult."

Copyright © 2009 AFP. All rights reserved.

Christians should seek common ground

Saturday, May 30, 2009 The first time I was asked which Christian sect I belonged to, I recoiled in horror at the connotation. A "sect" conjures up images of Jonesville, Guyana, named for leader Jim Jones or of the Branch Davidians, named for leader David Koresh. Raised a Wiccan, the person who posed the question wasn't trying to insult me. She really didn't know how to ask what denomination I belonged to. It turned out she didn't really care. She sees Christians as pretty much the same. Because I was raised in a Christian home and because I am a member of a Christian denomination, I easily see the many differences we have and feel very strongly about some of them. For instance, I am not Catholic, so I don't recognize Pope Benedictus XVI as my leader and don't value his opinions more than any other Christians. Even so, I was surprised in the past week in the grocery store when a woman informed me that he was going to hell. I asked her why the pope was hellbound, and she said he wasn't born again and had not been saved. I asked her how she knew this. She took this as a joke, but I was quite serious. How in the world does she know his heart? She took this question to mean that I must not be saved either, and expressed a sincere desire that I accept that I am not saved so that I can be. Well, she doesn't know the pope's heart and she doesn't know mine, either. She said she'd pray for me, and I hope she does. Prayer has brought me a long, long way. My husband tells a joke that is only funny if you learn a lesson from it. It goes something like this: "While I was vacationing in San Francisco, I went to the Golden Gate Bridge, and sure enough, there was a man threatening to jump. I cried, 'Wait a minute, brother, just talk to me for two minutes.' He agreed to talk to me so I sought to find common ground. I live in Texas, and it turns out he used to live in Texas, too. I asked him what religion he is, and he said Baptist. I said, 'Hey, I'm a Baptist, too,' and we talked about Sunday morning worship, Sunday evening training union, and Wednesday evening prayer meetings. I asked him what kind of Baptist he is and he said Southern Baptist, so I said, 'Hey, I'm a Southern Baptist, too.' We talked about how sad it was when the Baptist General Convention of Texas split from the Southern Baptist Convention. We were getting really chummy, until he told me that he didn't believe anointing oil should be on the altar. So I pushed the heretic off the bridge." It's not the funniest joke, but it's good for a chuckle. While I sincerely hope that no one would push anyone off of a bridge over that issue, I have known people who threatened to leave a church if the oil was taken off of the altar. Maybe we should try to take 1 Corinthians 9:22-23 a little more to heart: "Yes, I try to find common ground with everyone, doing everything I can to save some. I do everything to spread the Good News and share in its blessings." Finding common ground isn't really that difficult. Sometimes, it's deciding to look for common ground that is the hardest part. It's worth the effort. Charlotte Stewart edits the Religion section. Her e-mail is cstewart@longview-news.com. http://www.news-journal.com/featr/content/features/stories/2009/05/30/05302009_charlotte_column.html

Shavu'ot

Shavuot
Ruth the Moabite
Official name	Hebrew: שבועות or חג שבעות‎
Also called	English: "Festival of Weeks"
Observed by	Judaism and Jews
Type	Jewish
Significance	One of the Three Pilgrim Festivals. Celebrates the giving of the Ten Commandments by God to theChildren of Israel at Mount Sinai, 49 days (7 weeks) after the Exodusfrom ancient Egypt. Commemorates the fruit harvesting in the Land of Israel. Culmination of the 49 days ofCounting of the Omer.
Begins	6th day of Sivan
Ends	7th (in Israel 6th) day of Sivan
Celebrations	Festive meals. All-night Torahstudy. Recital of Akdamut liturgical poem in Ashkenazic synagogues. Reading of the Book of Ruth. Eating of dairy foods. Decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery.
Related to	Passover, which precedes Shavuot.

 Shavuot (help·info) (or  Shavuos (help·info), inAshkenazi usage; Hebrew: שבועות‎, lit. "Weeks") is aJewish holiday that occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of Sivan (late May or early June). Shavuot commemorates the anniversary of the day Godgave the Torah to Moses and the Israelites at Mount Sinai. It is one of the shalosh regalim, the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals. It marks the conclusion of theCounting of the Omer.

The date of Shavuot is directly linked to that ofPassover. The Torah mandates the seven-weekCounting of the Omer, beginning on the second day of Passover and immediately followed by Shavuot. This counting of days and weeks is understood to express anticipation and desire for the Giving of the Torah. On Passover, the Jewish people were freed from their enslavement to Pharaoh; on Shavuot they were given the Torah and became a nation committed to serving God.

In the Bible, Shavuot is called the Festival of Weeks(Hebrew: חג השבועות, Ḥag ha-Shavuot, Exodus 34:22,Deuteronomy 16:10); Festival of Reaping (Hebrew: חג הקציר, Ḥag ha-Katsir, Exodus 23:16), and Day of the First Fruits (Hebrew יום הבכורים, Yom ha-Bikkurim,Numbers 28:26). The Mishnah and Talmud refer to Shavuot as Atzeret (Hebrew: עצרת, a solemn assembly), as it provides closure for the festival activities during and following the holiday of Passover. Since Shavuot occurs 50 days after Passover, Christians gave it the name Pentecost (πεντηκόστη, "fiftieth day").

According to Jewish tradition, Shavuot is celebrated in the Land of Israel for one day and in the diaspora (outside of Israel) for two days. Reform Jews^[1]celebrate only one day, even in the diaspora.

Contents  [hide] 1 Connection with the harvest 2 Ceremony of Bikkurim 3 Modern observances 3.1 Akdamut 3.2 Dairy foods 3.3 Book of Ruth 3.4 Greenery 3.5 All-night Torah study 3.6 Tikkun Leil Shavuot 3.7 Confirmation 4 Dates in dispute 4.1 Giving of the Torah 4.2 Counting of the Omer 5 Critical scholarship 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links

[edit]Connection with the harvest

Besides its significance as the day on which the Torah was given by God to the Jewish nation at Mount Sinai, Shavuot is also connected to the season of the grain harvest in Israel. In ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks and was a season of gladness (Jer. 5:24; Deut. 16:9-11; Isa. 9:2). It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot. Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of Sukkot(Tabernacles) was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, an offering of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot.

[edit]Ceremony of Bikkurim

Bikkurim offerings in Nahalal

Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring theBikkurim (first fruits) to the Temple in Jerusalem (Mishnah Bikkurim1:3). The Bikkurim were brought from the Seven Species for which the Land of Israel is praised: wheat, barley, grapes, figs,pomegranates, olives, and dates (Deut. 8:8). In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in baskets woven of gold and silver. The baskets would then be loaded on oxen whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, and who were led in a grand procession to Jerusalem. As the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by music and parades.^[2]

At the Temple, each farmer would present his Bikkurim to a kohen in a ceremony that followed the text of Deut. 26:1-10. This text begins by stating, "An Aramean tried to destroy my father," referring toLaban's efforts to weaken Jacob and rob him of his progeny (Rashi on Deut. 26:5)—or by an alternate translation, the text states "My father was a wandering Aramean," referring to the fact that Jacob was a penniless wanderer in the land of Aram for 20 years (ibid., Abraham ibn Ezra). The text proceeds to retell the history of the Jewish people as they went into exile in Egypt and were enslaved and oppressed; following which God redeemed them and brought them to the land of Israel. The ceremony ofBikkurim conveys the Jew's gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for His guidance throughout Jewish history (Scherman, p. 1068).

[edit]Modern observances

A synagogue sanctuary decked out in greenery in honor of Shavuot

Shavuot is unlike other Jewish holidays in that it has no prescribedmitzvoth (Torah commandments) other than the traditional festival observances of abstention from work, special prayer services and holiday meals. However, it is characterized by many minhagim(customs). A mnemonic for these customs is the letters of the Hebrew word acharit (אחרית, "last"). Since the Torah is called reishit(ראשית, "first"), the customs of Shavuot highlight the importance of custom for the continuation and preservation of Jewish religious observance. These customs, largely observed in Ashkenaziccommunities, are:

• אקדמות – Akdamot, the reading of a liturgical poem during Shavuot morning synagogue services
• חלב – Chalav (milk), the consumption of dairy products like milk and cheese
• רות – Ruth, the reading of the Book of Ruth at morning services
• ירק – Yerek, the decoration of homes and synagogues with greenery

• תורה – Torah, engaging in all-night Torah study.

On the Gregorian calendar, Shavuot usually falls around late May or early June. In 2007, Shavuot was on Monday, May 28. In 2008, Shavuot was on Monday, June 9, beginning at sunset the evening before.

[edit]Akdamut

Main article: Akdamut

Akdamut (Aramaic: אקדמות) is a liturgical poem extolling the greatness of God, the Torah and Israel that is read publicly in the synagogue right before the morning reading of the Torah on the first day of Shavuot. It was composed by Rabbi Meir of Worms, whose son was murdered during the Crusade of 1096. Rabbi Meir was forced to defend the Torah and his Jewish faith in a debate with local priests, and successfully conveyed his certainty of God's power, His love for the Jewish people, and the excellence of Torah. Afterwards he wrote Akdamut, a 90-line poem in Aramaic which stresses these themes. The poem is written in a double acrostic pattern according to the order of the Hebrew alphabet. In addition, each line ends with the syllable "ta" (תא), the last and first letters of the Hebrew alphabet, alluding to the endlessness of Torah. The traditional melody which accompanies this poem also conveys a sense of grandeur and triumph.

Sephardim do not read akdamut, but before the evening service they sing a poem called Azharot which sets out the 613 Biblical commandments. The positive commandments are recited on the first day and the negative commandments on the second day.

[edit]Dairy foods

Cheese blintzes, an Ashkenazifood often served on Shavuot.

Dairy foods such as cheesecake and blintzes with cheese and other fillings are traditionally served on Shavuot. ^[3]One explanation for the consumption of dairy foods on this holiday is that the Israelites had not yet received the Torah, with its laws of shechita (ritual slaughtering of animals). As the food they had prepared beforehand was not in accordance with these laws, they opted to eat simple dairy meals to honor the holiday. Some say it harks back to King Solomon's portrayal of the Torah as "honey and milk are under your tongue" (Song of Songs 4:11).^[4]

[edit]Book of Ruth

There are five books in Tanakh that are known as Megillot (Hebrew: מגילות, "scrolls") and are publicly read in the synagogues on different Jewish holidays. The Book of Lamentations, which details the destruction of the Holy Temple, is the reading for Tisha B'Av; the Book of Ecclesiastes, which touches on the ephemeralness of life, corresponds to Sukkot; the Book of Esther (Megillat Esther) retells the events of Purim; and the Song of Songs, which echoes the themes of springtime and God's love for the Jewish people, is the reading for Passover.

The Book of Ruth (מגילת רות, Megillat Ruth) corresponds to the holiday of Shavuot both in its descriptions of the barley and wheat harvest seasons and Ruth's desire to become a member of the Jewish people, who are defined by their acceptance of the Torah. Moreover, the lineage described at the end of the Book lists King David as Ruth's great-grandson. According to tradition, David was born and died on Shavuot (Sha'arei Teshuvah to Orach Hayyim, 494).

[edit]Greenery

According to the Midrash, Mount Sinai suddenly blossomed with flowers in anticipation of the giving of the Torah on its summit. Greenery also figures in the story of the baby Moses being found among thebulrushes in a watertight cradle (Ex. 2:3) when he was three months old (Moses was born on 7 Adar and placed in the Nile River on 6 Sivan, the same day he later brought the Jewish nation to Mount Sinai to receive the Torah).^{[citation needed]}

For these reasons, many Jewish families traditionally decorate their homes and synagogues with plants, flowers and leafy branches in honor of Shavuot. Some synagogues decorate the bimah with a canopy of flowers and plants so that it resembles a chuppah, as Shavuot is mystically referred to as the day the matchmaker (Moses) brought the bride (the Jewish people) to the chuppah (Mount Sinai) to marry the bridegroom (God); the ketubbah (marriage contract) was the Torah. Some Eastern Sephardi communities actually read out a ketubbah between God and Israel as part of the service.

The Vilna Gaon cancelled the tradition of decorating with plants because it too closely resembles the Christian decorations for their holidays.

[edit]All-night Torah study

The custom of all-night Torah study goes back to 1533 when Rabbi Joseph Caro, author of the Shulchan Aruch, then living in Ottoman Salonika, invited his Kabbalistic colleagues to hold a night-long study vigil, in the course of which an angel appeared before them and commanded them to go live in Eretz Yisrael. According to a story in the Midrash, the night before the Torah was given, the Israelites retired early to be well-rested for the momentous day ahead, but they overslept and Moses had to wake them up because God was already waiting on the mountaintop.^[5] To rectify this flaw in the national character, religious Jews stay up all night to learn Torah.

Any subject may be studied, although Talmud, Mishna and Torah typically top the list. In many communities, men and women attend classes and lectures until the early hours of the morning. InJerusalem, thousands of people finish off the nighttime study session by walking to the Kotel before dawn and joining the sunrise minyan there. The latter activity is reminiscent of Shavuot's status as one of the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals, when the Jews living in the Land of Israel journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the holiday.^[6]

[edit]Tikkun Leil Shavuot

In keeping with the custom of engaging in all-night Torah study, the Arizal, a leading Kabbalist of the 16th century, arranged a special service for the evening of Shavuot. The Tikkun Leil Shavuot("Rectification for Shavuot Night") consists of excerpts from the beginning and end of each of the 24 books of Tanakh (including the reading in full of several key sections such as the account of the days ofcreation, The Exodus, the giving of the Ten Commandments and the Shema) and the 63 chapters of Mishnah. This is followed by the reading of Sefer Yetzirah, the 613 commandments as enumerated byMaimonides, and excerpts from the Zohar, with opening and concluding prayers. The whole reading is divided into thirteen parts, after each of which a Kaddish di-Rabbanan is recited when the Tikkun is studied in a group of at least ten Jewish, Bar Mitzvahed men.

This service is printed in a special book, and is widely used in Eastern Sephardic, some German and Hasidic communities. There are similar books for the vigils before the seventh day of Pesach andHosha'ana Rabbah.

The Spanish and Portuguese Jews do not observe this custom.

[edit]Confirmation

Reform Jewish synagogues will typically hold celebrations of Confirmation for tenth graders on the evening or morning of Shavuot. The holiday falls around the end of the school year and the giving of theTen Commandments naturally fits into the theme of continued Jewish learning.

[edit]Dates in dispute

Since the Torah does not specify the actual day on which Shavuot falls, differing interpretations of this date have arisen both in traditional and non-traditional Jewish circles. These discussions center around two ways of looking at Shavuot: the day it actually occurs (i.e., the day the Torah was given on Mount Sinai), and the day it occurs in relation to the Counting of the Omer (being the 50th day from the first day of the Counting).

[edit]Giving of the Torah

While most of the Talmudic Sages concur that the Torah was given on the sixth of Sivan; R. Jose holds that it was given on the seventh of that month. According to the classical timeline, the Israelites arrived at the wilderness of Sinai on the new moon (Ex. 19:1) and the Ten Commandments were given on the following Shabbat (i.e., Saturday). The question of whether the new moon fell on Sunday or Monday is undecided (Talmud, tractate Shabbat 86b). In practice, Shavuot is observed on the sixth day of Sivan inIsrael and a second day is added in the Jewish diaspora (in keeping with a separate rabbinical ruling that applies to all biblical holidays, called Yom Tov Sheini Shel Galiyot).

[edit]Counting of the Omer

The Torah states that the Omer offering (i.e., the first day of counting the Omer) should begin "on the morrow after the Shabbat" (Lev. 23:11). The Talmudic Sages determined that "Shabbat" here means simply a day of rest and refers to the first day of Passover. Thus, the traditional counting of the Omer begins on the second day of Passover and continues for the next 49 days, or seven complete weeks, ending on the day before Shavuot.

According to this calculation, Shavuot will fall on the day of the week after that of the first day of Passover (e.g., if Passover starts on a Thursday, Shavuot will begin on a Friday).

The Sadducees and Boethusians, however, disputed this interpretation. They contended that "Shabbat" really did mean "Shabbat," or Saturday. Accordingly, they reckoned the seven weeks from the day after the first Shabbat during Passover, so that Shavuot would always fall on a Sunday.

This interpretation was shared by the second-century BCE author of the Book of Jubilees, and was motivated by the priestly sabbatical solar calendar of the third and second centuries BCE, which was designed to have festivals and Sabbaths fall on the same day of the week every year. On this calendar (best known from the Book of Luminaries in 1 Enoch), Shavuot fell on the 15th of Sivan, a Sunday. The date was reckoned fifty days from the first Sabbath after Passover (i.e. from the 25th of Nisan). Thus, Jub. 1:1 claims that Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Torah "on the sixteenth day of the third month in the first year of the Exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt".

[edit]Critical scholarship

The Book of Jubilees describes the celebration of Shavuot in pre-Mosaic times. In Jub. 6:15-22 and 44:1-5, the holiday is traced to the appearance of the first rainbow on the 15th of Sivan, the day on which God made his covenant with Noah. The covenant renewal feature of Shavuot is thus attributed to this first covenant. Subsequently, it was observed by Noah until his death but revived again by Abraham (Jub. 15:1), and after Abraham's death it was forgotten again until Moses restored it once more.

Qumran scholar Gabriele Boccaccini has suggested that the 1,290 and 1,335 days of Daniel 12:11-12point to the observance of Shavuot in a restored Israel, as reckoned by the priestly solar calendar. These durations are exactly 30 and 45 days longer than the 3½ years mentioned in Dan. 7:25 and 9:27. The period of 3½ years amounts to 1,260 days in the priestly solar calendar because the equinoxes and solstices count as markers of the seasons rather than monthly days (1 En. 74:11, 75:1, 82:4). The blessings expected at the end of the 1,335 days pertain to the resurrection to "everlasting life" mentioned a few verses earlier (12:2), and this is the reward to those who refused to forsake the covenant unto death (Dan. 11:22, 11:28, 11:30, 11:33-35), while those who forsook the covenant (11:30-32) face "everlasting contempt".

Boccaccini sees the 3½ years as ending at the spring equinox (equinoxes and solstices were important markers of the seasons in the solar calendar), to be followed by 30 days to complete the 1,290 days (the month of Passover), and an additional 45 days to reach the 15^th of Sivan, the purported day of Shavuot. For those who refused to forsake the covenant, this would be the day the covenant would be renewed and the expected blessings would be realized.

The Jewish Encyclopedia points to the similarities between the Christian and Jewish Pentecost, as an outpouring of the spirit or the giving of the Law in seventy languages.^[7]

Young Life

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Young Life is a non-profit, Christian non-denominational, incarnational, parachurch ministry. Young Life consists of many branches of ministry (see below) but most commonly the name "Young Life" refers to the outreach arm of the organization directed towards high school students. Young Life staff and volunteer leaders build relationships with teenagers through a variety of social interactions, formal and informal events, and group trips.

History

Young Life was started when Jim Rayburn, a youth leader in Gainesville, Texas, was given the challenge of targeting high school kids who were not interested in church. In order to connect with these kids, Rayburn decided to spend time and develop relationships with them (this came to be known as contact work). After establishing relationships with these kids, he began weekly clubs. Kids attending these clubs would experience singing, various skits, a game or two, and finally a message about Jesus Christ.^[1] Soon, the popularity of these clubs increased, targeting many teenagers.

Young Life in the United States was officially incorporated by Jim Rayburn in Texas on October, 16, 1941. ^[1] The philosophies of this US version inspired evangelical efforts in more than 50 other countries, and Young Life reaches an estimated 1 million teenagers annually.

[edit]Purpose

Young Life's leaders state that their ministry philosophy is "incarnational" or "relational" ministry, which Young Life defines as a ministry